Gender and Number

Interactive Learning Module

Nouns

• This is the first of several interactive modules which will discuss Biblical Hebrew nouns.
• Gender – Unlike in English, Hebrew nouns have gender and are considered either masculine or feminine.
• Number – Nouns can be singular (marking one object), plural (marking more than one object) or dual (marking a pair of objects or measures).
• Agreement – Verbs and adjectives must agree in number and gender with the noun that they modify.
• Each of the above points will be elaborated upon and explained in the coming slides.
• A second module will focus on rules of pluralization and a third on the syntactic function of nouns in a sentence, i.e. how to indicate a direct or indirect object, possessive relationships, and the like.

• In this unit we will discover answers to the following questions:
• What does it mean for a noun to have "gender" if it is denoting an inanimate being? Is there any reason, for example, that a "שָׂדֶה" (field) is considered masculine while "אֲדָמָה" (ground or land) is considered feminine?
• Some words, like רֶגֶל (foot) can take two distinct plural suffixes, taking either a chirik-mem suffix or a patach-chirik-mem suffix ("רַגְלָיִם" or "רְגָלִים"). What is the difference in meaning between the two words (and the two suffixes as a whole)?
• Other words similarly take a choice of suffixes. One can find both "קְבָרִים" and "קְבָרוֹת" and "סִירִים" and "סִירוֹת". Is each pair identical in meaning or do the differing suffixes indicate that these refer to two different base nouns?
• If nouns agree in number with their modifiers why does Tanakh sometimes say not only "חֲמִשִּׁים שְׁקָלִים" but also "חֲמִשִּׁים שֶׁקֶל"?

• Hebrew nouns have gender and are considered either masculine or feminine, taking matching modifiers and verbs.
• Grammatical gender vs.natural gender – When nouns denote animate beings, their gender tends to correspond to that of the object (a queen is female, a boy is male etc.) However, when they denote inanimate objects, there is no clear correlation between the nature of the object and its gender. Thus, even words which are synonymous might have different genders.For example, the word "לְבָנָה" is feminine, while "יָרֵחַ" is masculine even though both words refer to the moon.
• Feminine markers – There is no definitive rule as to how to determine gender, but usually singular nouns that end with either a stressed kamatz-heh or with a taf are feminine.Some nouns are written with either ending, such as: דּעָה-דַּעַת or חַטָּאָה-חַטַּאת. Names of cities and countries and paired body parts, regardless of their ending, tend to be feminine as well.An interesting exception is the noun שָׁדַיִם, breasts, which somewhat ironically is masculine.
• Examples of feminine nouns ending in "ה" include: אֲדָמָה, בְּרָכָה, מִשְׁפָּחָה, עֲבֹדָה, שָׁנָה
• Examples of feminine nouns ending in "ת" include: אָחוֹת, בְּרִית, גָּלוּת, מַלְכוּת, עַבְדוּת
• Note:: The word לַיְלָה and poetic forms such as מָוְתָה ,נַחְלָה, and חַשְׁמַלָה have penultimate stress.The accent is on the second to last syllable (מלעיל). Thus, despite the kamatz-heh ending, they are masculine.See, for example, Radak on Yechezkel 8:2 who notes that the final heh of such words is superfluous, and not a marker of gender, proving his point from the fact they have penultimate stress. See also Gesenius that the kamatz-heh at the end of the word "לַיְלָה" is not a marker of gender but of direction, often added to place names to mean "to" or "at". Thus, the word לַיְלָה might have originally been derived from the masculine noun "לַיִל" (or some equivalent) found in poetic passages in Tanakh to mean "night", with the kamatz-heh suffix added to mean "at night". In the poetic forms, in contrast, the additional kamatz-heh might simply be an aesthetic flourish added to these masculine nouns.
• Masculine markers – Masculine singular nouns do not follow any regular patterns in their endings.
• For example, despite the different endings, the following are all masculine: בֵּן, דָּבָר, חֲלוֹם, יֶרֶק, מִזְבֵּחַ, נָבִיא, שָׁבוּעַ.
• Exceptions – There are many exceptions to the above. A feminine noun might nonetheless not end with a "ה" or "ת", and conversely, a word which has a typical feminine ending might nonetheless be masculine:
• Some singular feminine nouns which do not follow the expected "ה" or "ת" pattern include: אֶבֶן, אֵם, בְּאֵר, בֶּטֶן, גֶּפֶן, חֶרֶב, כּוֹס, כַּף, נַעַל, נֶפֶשׁ, עֹז, עִיר, צִפּוֹר‎.Many of these exceptions are segolates (bi-syllabic nouns with penultimate stress and, often, a segol in the second syllable). See below for further discussion of such nouns.
• Some words which appear to follow the feminine pattern, but are nonetheless masculine include: אוֹת, בַּיִת, זַיִת, מוֹפֵת, מָוֶת‎.Many of these exceptions are segolates as well.
• Dual gendered nouns – Some nouns are dual gendered, taking either masculine or feminine verbs or adjectives, though often one gender might be more prevalent.
• Some examples include: דֶּרֶךְ, מַחֲנֶה, רוּחַ, שֶׁמֶשׁ‎.Sometimes, in the very same verse, a word will be treated as both feminine and masculine. As an example, see Melakhim I 19:11 "וְרוּחַ גְּדוֹלָה וְחָזָק" where the noun takes both the feminine adjective "גְּדוֹלָה" and the masculine "חָזָק". For further discussion of such nouns and many examples, see "Gender".
• Exercise – Based on the above guidelines, determine whether the following nouns are feminine or masculine: שִׂמְחָה, שַׁבָּתוֹן, שַׁבָּת, שֻׁלְחָן, יָד. Check yourself by looking up each word in the dictionary.Type the word in the input box, click on the dictionary tab and find the gender, marked either n.m. (noun, masculine) or n.f. (noun, feminine).

• Gender in the plural – With regards to plural nouns as well, there is no definitive rule regarding gender, only general tendencies:
• To form a masculine plural, one generally adds the suffix "ים" to the singular form of the noun. Thus, the plural of שִׁיר (song) is שִׁירִים.
• To form a feminine plural, one generally drops the kamatz-heh or taf endings and adds the suffix "ות" (written either plene or defective, i.e. with or without the vav). Thus, the plural of בְּרָכָה (blessing) is בְּרָכוֹת.
• In all cases, the new final syllable is the one stressed.
• Exceptions – The above gender distinctions are by no means a hard and fast rule, and there are many exceptions:
• Examples of masculine words which pluralize as if they’re feminine include: שֻׁלְחָן-שֻׁלְחָנוֹת, רְחֹב-רְחֹבוֹת, נֵר-נֵרֹת, שֵׁם-שֵׁמוֹת‎.Many (but by no means all!) masculine words which contain a cholam take the feminine "ות" ending in the plural, perhaps due to the similarity in sound. Some examples include: בֹּרוֹת, זִכְרֹנוֹת, חֲלֹמוֹת, מְקֹמוֹת, קֹלוֹת, שׁוֹפָרוֹת.
• Examples of feminine words which pluralize as if they’re masculine include: אִשֶּׁה-נָשִׁים, בֵּיצָה-בֵּיצים, שָׁנָה-שָׁנִים, תּוֹלַעַת-תּוֹלָעִים‎.In each of these, the original kamatz-heh or taf is dropped before adding the "ים" ending. It is somewhat common that the names of feminine plants and animals will get a masculine ending. Examples include: חִטִּים, שִׁבּוֹלִים, שִׁקְמִים, תְאֵנִים, דְּבוֹרִים, יוֹנִים, נְמָלִים.
• Multiple suffixes
• Sometimes a word can take either the "ים" or "ות" ending, though one might be more prevalent.Sometimes, too, a word which has only one ending in Tanakh will have a choice of endings in Modern Hebrew. This is due to the influence of Rabbinic Hebrew where the "ות" suffix is more prevalent. Thus, several words which have a masculine suffix in Tanakh have a feminine one in Mishnaic Hebrew. [See, for example, the discussion regarding the plural form of "רחל" in Bavli Chulin 137b.] In Modern Hebrew some such words are used with either ending, while in other cases, one ending has won out.
• For example, in Biblical Hebrew, one can say either a) חַלּוֹנִים or חַלּוֹנות b) קְבָרִים or קְבָרוֹת c) נְהָרִם or נְהָרוֹת. [See also Yechezkel 40:25 where in one verse both plural forms of "חלון" appear.]
• There are also words which exist with two different endings, but each is used to mean different things.
• For example, in Biblical Hebrew "סִירִים" refers to thorns (see Hoshea 2:8), while "סִירוֹת" refers to pots (see Shemot 38:3), the singular of both being "סִיר"‎.In Modern Hebrew, this happens as well, often with the different endings relating to differences between Biblical and Rabbinic Hebrew. Thus, "עולמים" is a marker of time, as per the word's usage in Tanakh, while "עולמות" refers to "worlds", as per the word's usage in Rabbinic Hebrew, where the noun "עולם" took the additional meaning of "world" and was pluralized with either the "ים" or "ות" ending. Another example is the word "עֲדָשָׁה" (lentil) which is pluralized in Biblical Hebrew with a masculine ending, but in Mishnaic Hebrew with a feminine one. Modern Hebrew reserved the Biblical Hebrew plural "עֲדָשִׁים" to refer to lentils, while adopting the Mishnaic Hebrew "עֲדָשׁוֹת" to refer to lenses.
• Due to the many exceptions, one can never definitively determine the gender of a noun from its suffix. [If attempting a guess, it is better to look at the singular form of the word, as the plural "feminine" and "masculine" endings are far more fluid.]
• Note: Modifiers and verbs will always match the gender of the noun – not its suffix!

• Hebrew nouns can be singular, plural or dual and will take corresponding singular or plural modifiers.
• Singular nouns generally mark a single object.
• Collective nouns – Sometimes, though, a singular form can be used to refer to a class of objects, e.g. to speak of a collective or of a species or material. Examples include: "עוֹף" (fowl), עַם (nation), and זָהָב (gold).
• Some of these collective nouns, like צאן (sheep/flock), have no plural counterpart, while others, like חִטָּה/חִטִּים (wheat), do.Usually it is clear from context when a singular noun is being used in the collective sense. See, though, the debate over the meaning of the word "הַצְּפַרְדֵּעַ" in Shemot 8:2. Compare Shemot Rabbah who understands the word to refer to a single frog and Ibn Ezra who asserts that it refers to the species. The Midrash is likely motivated by the fact that this is the only place in the entire unit where the word appears in the singular form.
• Often, even though many items might be spoken of, such words will still take singular verbs and modifiers. Thus, Bereshit 8:20 speaks of "הָעוֹף הַטָּהוֹר", the pure birds, using a singular adjective.
• Sometimes, though, despite the singular form, collective nouns will be treated as a plural. Thus, they might take plural verbs (compare Yehoshua 24:21 "וַיֹּאמֶר הָעָם" with Yehoshua 24:24 "וַיֹּאמְרוּ הָעָם") or be numbered (see the phrase "חֲמִשָּׁה לֶחֶם", five [loaves of] bread (Shemuel I 21:4).In English, too, sometimes collective nouns can take a plural verb, in particular when the members of the collective are acting individually. This is very common in British English, but less so in American English.
• Commonly counted units – Certain nouns which denote things which are commonly counted, such as units of time or measurements (שָׁנָה, a year, or אַמָּה, a cubit), people (אִישׁ or נֶפֶשׁ), or coins (שֶׁקֶל, a shekel), might similarly be referred to by their singular form even when speaking of many such units (and even though a plural form of these nouns exists). Thus, for example, one can say "שִׁשִּׁים שָׁנָה" (sixty years), using the singular form "שָׁנָה".
• The general rule is that when speaking of units from two to ten, the plural form of these words will be used, but from eleven and up, either the singular or plural can be used.In modern Hebrew the same applies for words of Semitic origin, but with regards to nouns borrowed from foreign languages (like מטר, meter) one can use either the singular or plural noun even for amounts less than ten.
• Thus, though one can say either "עֶשְׂרִים שְׁקָלִים" (Vayikra 27:5) or "עֶשְׂרִים שֶׁקֶל" (Yechezkel 4:10), one would not say "חֲמִשָּׁה שֶׁקֶל", but rather "חֲמִשָּׁה שְׁקָלִים".
• Exercise – See Bereshit 5:6-7 and Melakhim II 8:26 and find both the singular and plural terms for the word "year". Based on the above, explain why each is used where it is.

• Plural nouns generally mark more than one object.
• However, there are certain nouns that appear in the plural in Biblical Hebrew, even though in English they would appear to be referring to a singular entity:
• Abstract nouns – Several abstract nouns which express a state or quality of being are never attested to in the singular in Biblical Hebrew, despite their singular English translations. Some examples include: רַחֲמִים (compassion), זְקֻנִים (old age), נְעוּרִים (youth), and סַנְוֵרִים (blindness). These will always take plural modifiers and verbs.
• Concrete nouns – A few words such as מים (water/s), שמים (heaven/s), and פנים (face/s), can refer to either a plural or a singular entity, but are always treated as plural.
• Honorific plurals – Certain words which refer to figures of authority sometimes appear in the plural, even when referring to only one individual or being.
• Thus, the word "אֱלֹהִים" (gods) is always written in plural, even when referring to the singular entity Hashem.
• Likewise, the words "אֲדוֹנִים" and "בְּעָלִים" (masters), despite the plural form, sometimes refer to just one individual, as in Bereshit 24:9-10, Bereshit 39:20, Shemot 21:29, Shemot 22:14.In contrast to the word "אֱלֹהִים", these words are also attested to in the singular, "אדון" and "בעל".
• In contrast to the above examples, when these words refer to a single person or to Hashem, they will usually take singular modifiers despite the plural form.For examples of some exceptional cases where the word "אֱלֹהִים" nonetheless takes a plural modifier, see Bereshit 20:13, Bereshit 35:7, Yehoshua 24:19 and Shemuel II 7:23. In many of these cases, due to the plural language, commentators debate whether the word is used in a holy sense to refer to Hashem or as a secular term, referring to angels, leaders, or other gods. Compare, for example, Rashi, Radak and R"Y Bekhor Shor on Bereshit 20:13.

• Dual nouns denote objects or measurements that normally occur in pairs; they are marked by the "patach-chirik-mem" suffix, as found at the end of שְׁנַיִם.
• Units of time/number – Units of time or measure relating to the number two are expressed as dual nouns. Examples include: יוֹמַיִם (two days), שְׁנָתַיִם (two years), מָאתַיִם (two hundred), אַלְפַּיִם (two thousand). Note that when the singular form ends in a "ה", the "ה" switches to a "ת" before adding the dual ending.
• Paired body parts – Most body parts that come in pairs are written as dual nouns. Examples include: רַגְלַיִם (legs), יָדַיִם (hands), עֵינַיִם (eyes), אׇזְנַיִם (ears), and שְׂפָתַיִם (lips).Some exceptions include: זְרֹעוֹת and כְּלָיוֹת (arms and kidneys) which have a plural rather than dual form. Despite the dual form, such body parts can still be numbered, and one can say, for example, "שִׁבְעָה עֵינָיִם", seven eyes (Zekharyah 3:9) or "שֵׁשׁ כְּנָפַיִם", six wings (Yeshayahu 6:2).
• Paired objects – The dual form is sometimes used to name items which contain two, paired parts. Examples include: מְצִלְתַּיִם (cymbals), נַעֲלָיִם (shoes), מֹאזְנָיִם (balance scale), and מֶלְקַחַיִם (tongs).
• Place names – Many place names include a dual ending. Examples include: אֲרַם נַהֲרַיִם‎See Rashi Bereshit 24:10 that the site is so called due to the two rivers of the area, the Tigris and Euphrates. מִצְרַיִם‎,See R. D"Z Hoffmann Bereshit 10:6 that the dual name might relate to Upper and Lower Egypt. and מַחֲנָיִם‎.See Ibn Ezra Bereshit 32:3 that Yaakov named the place after the two camps who camped there, his own and that of the angels. Cf. Shadal that one need not look into the meaning of the dual since names often have this form, unconnected to any twosome.
• Exercise
• See Mishlei 28:6. Based on what we have learned, what might the word "דְּרָכַיִם" mean and how might it differ from the more common "דְּרָכִים"? [See Malbim there who suggests that the term might mean crossroads rather than path.]
• Find and compare the plural form of "רֶגֶל" in Mishlei 6:18 with the form found in Shemot 23:14. Why is the dual form used only in one case and not the other? What does each noun mean in context? [Advanced: See Ibn Ezra and Shadal on Shemot 23:14].

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